tions, but do not press too hard or you
will mar the surface of the linoleum.

To cut outlines, do not use the vee-
chisel but rather a knife. This is more
work, but the contours will be more
precise. To cut the interior spaces, use a
U-shaped gouge. There are many tools
designed for cutting linoleum: use one
with a short handle that allows a secure
grip. Do not use tools that are designed
for woodcuts. When you work with a
knife, pull towards yourself; gouges
should be pushed away. Make shallow
cuts of about '/32 inch (1 millimeter)
depth.

Before you print, you can temper the
linoleum block with alcohol or methy¬
lated spirits. Use ink made for linoleum
printing. If you do not have access to a
press, make your prints with a burnish¬
ing tool such as those described for
woodcut printing. After printing, clean
the block with alcohol.

Engravings

Engraving is a good technique for small
projects that require precision, such as
initials, monograms, and ex libris plates.
Here the image to be printed is cut into
the surface of the plate, rather than
raised above it. Both material and tech¬
nique demand exactness and well-defined
forms. Plates can be of various metals —
copper, zinc, brass, and others. The
plate should be about 3/i6 inch (4 milli¬
meters) thick if it is to be used in a print¬
ing press or with other type.

Tools are gravers, burins, needles, and
scrapers. A magnifying glass, if neces¬
sary, and a honing stone should be at
hand.

To transfer the design, clean the plate
and cover the plate with a thin layer of
gum arabic; then copy the drawing or
trace it on with carbon paper. Define the
outline with an engraving needle and re¬
move the burr with a scraper. Repeat the

process for deeper lines, or cut them
with a graver. Afterwards widen the lines
as desired with a graver, which should be
guided in a rocking motion over a wedge,
as in woodcutting. Rest the plate on an
engraving block or pad and turn the
plate to the optimal positon for each cut
(Figure 435). Keep the graver sharp dur¬
ing the process: use the honing stone
frequently. Use a scraper to remove all
burrs before printing. All remaining
problem areas will be visible clearly after
the first print. Scratches can be removed
with a burnisher or scraper. Any result¬
ing indentation in the plate can be cor¬
rected by hammering the plate from the
back; the plate must be placed on a com¬
pletely flat metal surface, with a thin
piece of cardboard between the two to
protect the plate. If you have more sub¬
stantial errors to correct, solder addi¬
tional metal to the surface and reçut.

Before printing, trim the plate pre¬
cisely and either nail it to wooden cross-
pieces or glue it to metal ones.

Resist Technique

The resist technique is a good way to
make negative calligraphic forms. You
will need gum arabic or another water-
soluble adhesive. Thin a small amount of
it with water in a bowl and add water-
color to make the design visible. Check
the consistency of the mixture before
you start: if it is too thin, the resist will
not work; if it is too thick, it will clog the
nib of your pen too quickly. Even under
ideal conditions you have to clean your
nib frequently. Apply the resist material
to the nib with a brush, as if you were
dealing with ink. When dry, the letters
should be shiny but not too thick, or
they will crack.

Next, using a rubber roller, cover the
entire paper surface with the desired
color of water-insoluble paint or ink.
Repeat the process until there is an even

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layer of color over the sheet. Then hold
the paper under running water to dis¬
solve the adhesive, thereby removing
color in the resist area. You may have to
wipe it gently with an old brush. Stretch
the damp sheet on a board to dry.

The letters created by resist often re¬
tain traces of color in fine crack lines,
and may have slightly uneven contours:
both effects can be quite attractive.

An alternative method for applying
color to resists is to use paint thinned
with turpentine and a bristle brush or a
stippling brush. The outline of the let¬
ters will be fuzzy, because the thinned
paint will eat away at the resist, and
more color will remain in the washed
out areas.

Scratch Technique

Scratching letters on glass or sturdy ac¬
rylic is a very useful technique for de¬
signers. Add some glycerin or soap to
your paint to keep if from cracking; too
much will cause the color to streak when
you scratch it. Place the design under
the surface. Draw the pattern with a
brush, and scratch its oudine with a sharp¬
ened lithography scraper. It is easy to
correct the drawing.

The scratched design is more clearly
defined than a pencil drawing on paper,
and can be reproduced photographically.

You can prepare a simple scratch-
board with smooth cardboard by apply¬
ing a white base made of carpenter's
glue, whiting, and some zinc oxide.
Apply several layers and smooth with
very fine sandpaper. Then apply a layer
of fixative to keep the ground separate
from the ink, and cover this with black
Chinese ink or printing ink. Use a litho¬
graphic scraper or a graver to scratch in
the design. Cover errors with fresh ink,
and rescrape. Again, the scratched artwork
can be reproduced.

Lettering in Architecture and
the Environment

General Remarks

There are well-known connections be¬
tween styles of architecture and letter¬
ing. Until the dawn of neoclassicism, all
inscriptions were matched carefully and
harmoniously to the building they were
intended for. During the nineteenth
century a general decline in taste and the
rise of advertising caused many changes.
On today's streets we find but few exam¬
ples of lettering that is used beautifully
and in harmony with the surrounding
architectural elements. The prevailing re¬
liance on technology and formalistic
amateurism proves that neither architects
nor the companies that execute the
signs are able to handle the problems of
lettering.

Better models could improve the situ¬
ation substantially, but even those will
not suffice for important design projects,
where only well-educated graphic artists
can do what is necessary. It is important
to remember that lettering of any kind
in connection with architecture must
never appear as an afterthought, but has
to be a vital ingredient of the total de¬
sign. Lettering should not only satisfy
the immediate demands of the particular
purpose: it should also satisfy aesthetic
and artistic demands for years to come.

It is equally important to consider the
optical effects of the lettering arising
from the building's position or traffic
situation. The placement of the lettering
and its size depends on all these factors
as well as on the length of the text and
the letter style.

When you plan a sign for a store,
consider what will be in the shop win¬
dows. If you are dealing with an building
of historic interest, incorporate the sign
in the window area and avoid interfering

205