ital A into a circle. Make sure that you
try all the possibilities you can imagine.
New ideas or at least new points of view
will surface during the process. Choose
the best sketches and draw them more
carefully at a larger scale —about 7 in¬
ches (15 to 20 centimeters) high. Now
check to see if a photographic reduction
to У% inch (5 millimeters) still renders
clear details.

Lettering in a Circle
Sometimes you may want a circular ar¬
rangement of letters. To balance the
amount of text with the diameter of the
circle, it may be preferable to arrange
short texts in two semicircles. Capitals
usually work best, because they create a
more pronounced ribbon effect.

Figures 415 through 418 illustrate the
process of arranging the letters in circu¬
lar fashion. Start with rough sketches to
establish the relationship between letter
size and diameter of the circle. Include a
border in the design. When you have
decided on one design, multiply the

inner diameter of the circle by 3.14 (pi)
to determine the length of the letter
strip (Figure 416). On this strip make a
sketch and then a more detailed drawing
of the lettering. Transfer it onto the
middle line of the ring (Figure 417). Di¬
viding the text into an upper and lower
section will make it easier to read.

Posters

Most posters combine pictures with
words. The lettering carries the specific
message, but it is an integral design ele¬
ment and visually subordinate to the pic¬
ture. Most graphic artists lack the training
to design letters, and prefer to incorpo¬
rate copies of established models into
their work: their decisions are thereby
limited to choosing type and determin¬
ing its size and placement on the poster.
Alternatively, the lettering could be
developed from the style of the image.
Here the words would not act as a con¬
trasting element, but rather as part of an
integrated design. (See for example the

Figure 415

poster in Figure 498, page 225, which
did not require a knowledge of formal
letter construction.)

In some posters the letters are the
sole transmitter of meaning — that is, the
text is the visual image. Handled in mas¬
terly fashion, the effect can be quite
impressive. Some topics do not lend
themselves to graphic depiction and are
actually better served by such treatment.
Typographic, handlettered, or even three-
dimensional letters can be used and
manipulated, and many combinations
are possible. The rich diversity of con¬
tent must be expressed through various
representations of letters. A word or a
group of lines simply formed by adding
one letter to the other can surprise, and
possess a decidedly monumental look.

Posters aim to transmit ideas, which
may have cultural, educational, political,
or other meaning. Unless the poster is
displayed indoors only, it has to com¬
pete — on billboards and walls, for exam¬
ple—with a host of other materials for
the attention of the viewer. Since it is

Figure 416

FUR ML =[>

i imi i 111___________________________________________________________

Figure 417 Figure 418

192

impossible to predict what the eventual
surroundings of a poster will be, the de¬
signer is obliged to search for ever novel
and interesting layouts. It should be
noted here that it is not necessarily the
most extroverted and gaudy image that
draws the most attention, but sometimes
the simple and serene.

A poster designed to be hung out¬
doors has to be visible for a distance of
about 10 to 15 yards (10 to 15 meters)
to attract attention and interest. Its
drawing point might be an expressive
quality, a feeling of movement up and
down or back and forth, the emotional
content of its colors, its intensity, or even
its aggressiveness. Whatever the design,
it must create quick associations in the
viewer to involve him or her emotion¬
ally. Big closed forms with interesting
details in the interior serve the purpose
best, because they are visible from afar
and still provide interest for the nearby
observer.

A poster persuades by making its
main message clear, and it is obvious
that the words here are as important as
the formal design. The central idea must
be accessible quickly and without great
effort, but this does not in any way pre¬
clude the inclusion of secondary mes¬
sages that linger in the mind of the
viewer for some time or become obvious
only after repeated encounters.

To get started designing a poster: jot
down ideas with pencil or colored pen¬
cils, then clarify important aspects such
as size and weight relationships and
color in small-scale sketches. Compare
sketches of various elements in different
sizes, stroke widths, and colors, and try
out various arrangement of the cut-out
pieces until the result is pleasing. Check
to be sure that effects planned in the
sketch format work when enlarged to
poster size.

If the poster contains a lot of text,

break it into blocks. Even ih a poster
made up entirely of text, certain sections
can be planned as preworked units, to be
replaced as necessary. For example, al¬
ternate information on the location of an
event can be set on an overlay, to be
placed in the appropriate position by the
printer.

Packaging and Labels

A product wrapper simultaneously pro¬
tects, advertises, and informs purchasers
about content and quality. Buyers usu¬
ally transfer the impressions they get
from the package to the product itself. It
is therefore obvious that the packaging
should produce positive associations.
Color, quality of material, and design
are the key features to which the con¬
sumer responds.

The packaging designer needs not
only technical skills, but also a certain
knowledge of psychology. The designer
has to be able to predict buyers' reac¬
tions, as well as convey information
about the product. A can of cocoa must
not resemble a paint can; toothpaste and
skin-lotion containers have to be dis¬
tinctly different.

The most important function of pack¬
aging is to characterize the product
through visual elements — images, deco¬
ration, and lettering—all of which have
to be integrated in the completed de¬
sign. Type, photographs, and illustration
can be combined. If the main element of
design is the lettering itself, the orna¬
mental values of the letters have to be
explored for their aesthetic impact, but
the wish to create something original
must never interfere with the legibility
of the text.

It may be necessary to include some
or all of the following data on a package:
contents, name of the manufacturer,
price, weight or piece count, logo or

trademark, governmental notices, ingre¬
dients, and assembly instructions. This
information should be clear and easy to
understand. Some of it, such as assembly
instructions, recipes, or a list of parts,
can also be given on the inside of flaps,
or on a separate sheet of paper or
brochure inserted in the package.

The graphic elements chosen must
serve to distinguish the product from
others to avoid confusion between simi¬
lar products, but possess a recognizable
style that is common to all products of
the particular company. This can be ac¬
complished by using the same lettering
style on all printed matter, including the
company logo and its signage. A unify¬
ing color or combination of colors can
serve the same purpose. Entire families
of product designs can be created in this
way. Some companies or products are
already well known and associated with
a particular image or tradition. It is wise
to continue such traditions if they are at
all acceptable from the designer's point
of view.

It is essential to consider the available
materials for packaging and the ways in
which they can be manipulated. Paper,
cardboard, metal foils, vinyl, glass,
wood, and sheet metal all have distinctly
different characteristics, and react differ¬
ently to print or other means of decora¬
tion. Other important considerations for
package design include: economic fac¬
tors and special requirements for hand¬
ling, storage, and shipping, but these can¬
not be discussed in the limited space of
this book.

Packaging is three-dimensional, and
it is imperative to make full-size models
to account for possible technical prob¬
lems. Consider different views and an¬
gles of the finished product and position
graphic elements accordingly. Boxes
should present the intended view from
at least two opposite sides, and the cus-

193