als, and hard stones such as the various
forms of granite.

The use of highly polished stones for
grave markers is controversial among ex¬
perts, and many prefer the matte sur¬
faces to the polished ones.

Figures 446 and 447 show different
profiles of cut letters.

Sofi stone. Figure 446a has a polished
surface and large areas are scratched, b
has a polished or scratched surface, с and
d have a polished surface and a tooled
ground.

Hard stone. Figure 447a has a polished
surface. Use larger letters without serifs
on scratched surfaces, b can have a
polished or scratched surface and a
tooled ground. The profile in с is seen
frequently and results in letters that look
as if they were superimposed on the
stone. The connection between ground
and letters must remain evident.

It would be of little use to explain the
various techniques involved in any de¬
tail. The interested graphic artist can
observe a stone mason in his shop and
learn about the appropriate use of his
tools.

The depth of the relief depends on
the size of the letters. Raised styles are
often too high and appear clumsy. If a
letter is 1 to 2 Уг inches (3 to 7 centime¬
ters) high, a relief height of lA inch (3 to
5 millimeters) is enough. Consider poros¬
ity, color, pattern, and structure of the
stone surface and practice single letters
on small scraps of stone. Estimate the ef¬
fect of light at the future location of the
stone and the relatively quicker weather¬
ing of softer stone.

Recessed letters are often gilded or
otherwise colored for better legibility.
This is a practice that was popular
among the early Greeks and during the
Gothic and baroque eras. Do not use
silver or other metals of similar color —
they look alien, even ugly, in combina-

210

tion with stone. Other colors should be
chosen slightly darker than the stone it¬
self and in the same shade. Use earth
pigments for soft stone and artists' oil
paints with some added oil for hard
stones. The best solution is lettering de¬
signed to be legible without the addition
of color, and the worst effects are with¬
out a doubt created by two-color en¬
hancements that imitate light and
shadow effects on the two sides of a V-
shaped profile.

Neither paint nor gold will perma¬
nently adhere to marble that is exposed
to the elements. Indoors the light situa¬
tion might be controllable to make addi¬
tional color unnecessary. Marble can be
used for finely detailed lettering styles.
Gravemarkers with bronze plaques or
letters can be seen frequently, but the
bronze oxidizes after only a few years
and will in time destroy the surrounding
stone.

Raised or recessed lead letter, on the
other hand, can be used on polished or
scratched surfaces. Use a relief height of
!/8 inch (2.5 to 4 millimeters) for 4-inch
(7- to 10-centimeter) high letters. The
profile can remain smooth or be deco¬
rated with grooves. Weathering will not
occur (Figure 448a). Another technique
that can be used if the lettering is not
too ornate or detailed is inlay, which re¬
quires great skill and is very time con¬
suming. Use light marble or other light
stones. Chisel the letters in a profile that
is slightly wider at the bottom and drill
three or four slanted holes for each letter
(Figure 448b). Depending on the prop¬
erties of the stone the lead strips of the
chosen profile are either hammered in or
melted and poured in, and later polished
until stone and letters are perfectly level.

Letters cut in wood require similar
aesthetic considerations, but are exe¬
cuted with different tools in a different
material.

Figure 445a

Figure 445b

V

л^т

446 Soft stone.

wrong

447 Hard stone.

ЛЛ

Figure 448a

Figure 448b

7-Л

drilled holes

Figure 449

450 Main street in Leipzig during the Spring
Fair, 1969. (Photo by Doris Beinecke.)

Lettering in Bronze
Raised letters look better than recessed
ones on cast bronze plaques. Transfer a
mirror image of your design onto a plas¬
ter base and cut the letters out with a
knife or other woodworking tools (Fig¬
ure 449). For small plaques, consider
using wood, soapstone, or slate. The re¬
lief must be all the same height. Alterna¬
tively, you can cut out plywood letters
and fix them to a base as a pattern. A
foundry will use your model to make a
sand mold for casting.

Lettering on Glass

Lettering on glass is frequently used in
advertising and can be found in win¬
dows, house fronts, and exhibitions. The
process actually belongs in the domain
of the painter or signpainter, but since
painters are not usually trained to work
with type, it is best to refer involved
projects to a graphic artist to achieve
aesthetically pleasing results. In the de¬
sign of exhibition spaces it may be most
effective for the graphic artist to carry
out the entire project. If more than one
sign is to be produced, silk screening is
usually the technique of choice.

For this technique, the letters that are
to be printed are cut out, and this can
only be done if the form of the letters is
appropriate. Quickly sketched brushwork,
for instance, is not suitable. Use only
lightfast color, and avoid large light
areas next to large dark areas in designs
that will be exposed to intense sunlight.
Colors react differently to exposure, and
expansion could cause cracks. If the sign
is transparent, the contours of the letters
will be somewhat blurred: to minimize
this effect, keep plenty of space between
letters and draw a pattern in full size on
tracing paper to check the effect.

A short description of the process fol¬
lows for the designer who wants to exe¬
cute the work completely. Metal foil

used to be employed, but has now been
replaced by paintable foil. Clean the
glass with alcohol and make sure that
there are no scratches on it. Then apply
the foil and let it dry in horizontal posi¬
tion. If the foil is translucent put the
drawing on the transparent paper in
mirror image on to white drawing paper
and place the glass plate on top. Now
cut around the letter with a single-edged
woodcutting knife or a similar cutting
tool. If you want light letters on a dark
ground, it is best to remove the foil that
covers the background area and leave
the letters standing. If you want dark let¬
ters on a light ground, cut around the
letters and then remove the letter shapes.
Apply the color with a stippling
brush. After the first color has dried, re¬
move the rest of the foil. If you want
background color, apply it with a rubber
roller or stipple it on. The paint should
not be too thick. Half oil paint with 3 5
to 40 percent French turpentine and true
linseed oil varnish are best. Addition of
several drops of thickened linseed oil is
absolutely necessary, but if you add too
much blisters will appear in the paint
when it is exposed to the sun. Latex
paints are durable, but require the appli¬
cation of several layers because they do
not cover well.

Large-scale Lettering on Banners
Large banners and posters make striking
advertisements for special occasions, but
you must consider the architecture of
the surrounding buildings and spaces.
Do not cover or obstruct windows, and
confine your signs to store windows if
you are dealing with old buildings of ar¬
chitectural interest. Banners stretched
across a street are a good solution. Fig¬
ure 450 shows the effect of large vertical
banners that are used to decorate
Hainstrasse in Leipzig during the annual
fair.

211