daily reading fodder is in lower-case, its spacing is
even more important.

When we are concerned with optical spacing,
regardless of whether we are dealing in letters or
some other form of symbol and providing all
characters are brought to a common height, the
growth rate of space remains the same. It is the
weight of the symbol, together with the dispersal of
that weight measured in ever increasing terms
outwards on either side of the optical position, which
gives you the symbol's alloted space.

It would of course, be possible but very difficult to
make light wedges for every varying x height. But it is
much more practical to keep the wedge a constant
size (like a fixed eye) and make all our symbols
conform to the same height, thus in a sense, varying
the letter size rather than the eye.

To obtain the correct spacing for the lower-case is
just a question of dividing the capital space curve on
the graph according to the small x height relation of
lower-case to capitals. Thus the light values for
lower-case of two-thirds capital height are plotted on
the lower line and space readings are taken off the
left of the graph in a similar fashion to the capitals.

Initial capital and lower-case

The capital initial set to lower-case is not an easy one

20

Thie

Tjo

F

lop

Щ

oot

P]

Ifci

ixt

Fig. 26

to solve satisfactorily, but I don't think there is any
necessity to make a capital alphabet especially for
this purpose as is normally the case, as capitals to be
spaced properly must then be done by eye.

Some alternative settings are needed if the optical
setting of capitals to lower-case is to be satisfactory
(Fig. 26). For example, the T must have on its right a
closer fit when followed by a lower-case letter of
x height than when the lower-case letter has an
ascender on its left. This means, in effect, that the eye
is judging the'T' in the first instance as a lower-case
letter with an ascending top, and in the second
instance the lower-case letter as a capital and
therefore including the ascender. This principle may
extend in some alphabets to the other capital letters
that are wider above the small x height than below.

At the most they are few in number and need

alternative sets on the right side only. The capitals
likely to need special treatment are 'F' 'P' 'T' 'V' 'W'

'Y'.

A design tool

The design of letters can be greatly helped by an
instrument such as the one incorporating my ideas,
which is made by Mr Southward, of Cambridge
Consultants Ltd, for Letraset Ltd, the makers of dry
transfer lettering. Whilst its use for the moment is to
facilitate the placing of spacing markers or guides on
sheets of Letraset it could contribute very greatly to
the design of letters, and particularly to their fit
within a predetermined unit width.

To be concerned with the proper fit of letters, one to
another, in a way pleasing and economical is only
reasonable. Earlier we noticed that the optical set of
an alphabet tended to be limited by the capital 'L'

(Fig. 27).

The illustration shows in a purely theoretical way how
the 'L' can be modified to occupy a smaller space,
firstly by reducing the projection of the horizontal
stroke, and secondly by increasing the weight at the
tip of the horizontal stroke. It can be seen straight
away that the shift in the optical centre in the third
example decreases the space requirements of the ' L'
and in spite of adding to its area. Many of the more